Criminal Justice and Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Criminal Justice and Policing - Essay Example you are a police officer from another state) or the police department’s off-duty powers of arrest policy, you may be permitted by law to conduct an arrest or not. As an officer of the law you will be obligated to follow the due process of the law. However before you make the actions specified above, you will need to first talk to your friend, telling him your concern and finding out whether he was privy to the cocaine snorting by his other friends. You should make it clear to him the consequences of cocaine possession and use with regards to the law. In reality, though, you will probably find cause to disassociate him from culpability. The issue raised here is a moral problem because it involves a difference of belief. Coleman (2004) says that the issue of police accepting small gifts has long been a source of contention the fear being that it could influence an officer’s judgment while dispensing his/her duties. The moral question here is whether gratuities affect an officer’s decision making or not. There is no policy or law that governs this issue and professional discretion has been used to determine which gifts an officer could accept and which ones he/she should not accept. It is this professional discretion that Kania (2004) refers to as a slippery slope. Kania (2004) further states that though the fruit basket for your family, Christmas card, and $30 gift certificate could be innocent with no expectations attached to them nevertheless they would increase bias to the officer. The rationale behind my action here would be that any officer who receives a gift would be inclined to spend more time on the merchant’s premises thereby providing the merchant a few extra minutes of private security. This would cause an imbalance in provision of services to the community which does not appeal to the professionalism required from a police officer. Moreover, in a perfect world, which is what we are striving for, there would

The World in my image Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The World in my image - Research Paper Example It is not for nothing then that there exist several international bodies, of which almost all countries of the world belong to one of them or the other. Because of the need to ensuring that national decisions made conform to international principles and standards, policy makers have a great deal of task to learn when it comes to meeting the said standards and principle in the formulation and implementation of national policies. It is for this reason that the need to study international systems to have a fairer idea of the present image of the international system should always be a priority to policy makers. In the present essay therefore, an academic perspective is given of the current world image when it comes to international systems. Such analysis of the current international system would influence decision making at the national and international levels for policy makers. Overview of the International System The term international system is greatly influenced by behaviorism in t hat the personal systems of human behavior have led to the various theories of international system, being organized into two major components or perspectives. These perspectives are foreign-policy perspective and international-system-analysis perspective (Britannica, 2012). Some of the key theories that make up the foreign policy perspective are how individual states are governed and categories. Under this, mention can be made of some key categorization of individual States such as democratic nations and dictatorship States. At the foreign policy level therefore, nations are better viewed as individual states that have the freedom to operate from very individualistic viewpoints without having to think about the need to conform of strict international standards (Gilpin, 2002). This is indeed where the subject of total sovereignty comes in. At the international system analysis perspective or level however, there are major theories that deals with how nations interact with each other. This perspective or level has been considered to be a major binding necessity as no individual nation can proof to be so independent that it would not need to interact with other nations in one way or the other to get basic social and economic support. At the international system analysis level, the capacities of individual nations are considered in the relations but the essential factor is that each nation is supposed to operate within a confined specification of regulations and conduct. Structure and nature of the contemporary international system According to Dessler et al (1997), the best description that can be given to the structure and nature of the international system is and â€Å"organization of units that emerges spontaneously from their interaction.† It could be seen that the description put forth by Dessler et al (1997) is directly rooted in the two perspectives of international system discussed earlier. This is because at the discrete level, States interact wit h themselves and as a result of their interactions, which are often influenced by the foreign policy perspective, an interaction is developed. Subsequently, the interaction gives birth to the international system analysis perspective and finally forms of the structure of the international system, which according to Waltz (2010), when formed â€Å"cannot be controlled by the discrete units from which it was first formed.† In effect, the structure of

Christian formatiom for Holistic Care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Christian formatiom for Holistic Care - Essay Example ion and Psychiatry have a mysterious relationship, medical studies have linked an improvement in the health of a being, reduced apprehension, and long life to religion and spirituality (Lawrence, et al, 2007). The authors also indicate that it is not clear what psychiatrists should do in the event that they encounter a spiritual patient, though the medics admit to the huge role played by spirituality in the medical field (Lawrence et al, 2007). From the raw data collected and analyzed by Lawrence et al (2007), psychiatrists have been indicated to address the concept of religion whilst in the clinical setting. In fact, at times they are forced to inquire about the patient’s spirituality, especially in times when these patients suffer from depression (Lawrence et al, 2007). This is to mean that spirituality has been regarded as a key player in the entire medical care and practice. The influence of religion has been said to give the patients optimism, a calm condition of the mind, and generally, a positive health status (Lawrence et al, 2007). Just like Curlin et al (2007) indicate, the role of religion in medicine has slowly gained root in the entire profession. Lawrence et al (2007) also attest to the fact that psychiatrists are more than ever open to discussions on spirituality issues with their patients. This is an interpretation of the fact that they have a positive attitude towards prayer; despite of the fact religion may also have negative effects on the patients (Lawrence et al, 2007). This study can be said to contrast the usual perception that medics ignore the issue of religion/spirituality of their patients. Essentially, Lawrence et al (2007) give a good example of how medics work in close relation with the members of the clergy in relation to health provision. However, it is important to note that, as Lawrence et al (2007) write, a lot of medics do not have the professional know-how on how to deal with religion issues; they therefore rely on their

Spoil the Parenting Essay Example for Free

Spoil the Parenting Essay In the essay entitled Spare the Rod, Spoil the Parenting, Pitts argues that the traditional, sweeping concept about corporal punishment is no longer acceptable, maintaining that the minor punishment like spanking or swatting the butt of children should be distinguished from the harsher punishments such as the â€Å"shaking and blows to the head or face.† In effect, he does not agree with the idea that all corporal or bodily punishments, notwithstanding their severity, should be considered de facto child abuse (Pitts). He presented several reasons why a reasonable corporal punishment like spanking should not be considered child abuse. First, he argued that spanking should not be equated with stomping, punching, or scalding because they are simply not the same. Second, according to him, it has never been proven with certainty that spanking, as previously claimed by some, leads to mentally unstable children. As a matter of fact, Pitts cited the study conducted by Dr. Diana Baumrind of the University of California which refuted this argument. Third, the suggestion that parents should resort to negotiation instead of applying reasonable corporal punishment is just not feasible because a five-year-old, for instance, would rather scream than talk things over. According to him, negotiating with a child accomplishes nothing more than propping up the child’s self-esteem which leads him or her to the dangerous belief that he or she is in charge (Pitts). Pitts considered spanking a corrective measure which should be applied in order to let the child know who is in charge. According to him, when parents fail in this role, children grow up without respect for adult authority. He explained that history is replete with horror stories involving persons who grew up in such an environment. However, he agreed with those who oppose spanking or corporal punishment, per se, when they say that corporal punishment is not a panacea or a cure-all solution for misbehaving children. He clarified that child-rearing does not only require â€Å"discipline, but also humor, love and some luck.† In the end, Pitts urges parents to take charge, declare a â€Å"benign dictatorship† as our culture dictates. The alternative, he says, are children â€Å"poisoned by self-esteem† and â€Å"self-centered adult[s] ill-equipped to deal with the vagaries and reversals of life† (Pitts).   Work Cited Pitts, Leonard, Jr. â€Å"Spare the Rod, Spoil the Parenting.† Attachment to order #71157717.

Design of 4 Line Private Exchange Box

Design of 4 Line Private Exchange Box INTRODUCTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION Private branch exchange system (PBXs) operates as a connection within private organizations usually a business. Because they incorporate telephones, the general term extension is used to refer to any end point on the branch. The PBX handles calls between these extensions. The primary advantage of PBXs was cost savings on internal phone calls: handling the circuit switching locally reduced charges for local phone services. The private branch exchange (PBX) provides internal station-to-station communications for a well-defined set of users. Three distinct generations of private branch exchanges have appeared. In the first generation (1900-1930), a human operator manually set up calls. Second-generation private branch exchanges (mid-1930s to mid-1970s) used mechanical relays to establish the call path. The third generation of private branch exchanges is the stored-program microprocessor-controlled system. Introduced in the mid-1970s, these systems use computer instructions to perform th e call set-up and tear-down. The third-generation private branch exchange is physically much smaller than electromechanical models, uses less power, and generates less heat.(Brooks, 1999) In this project, the design of a 4 line telephone systems with full signaling and switching functions similar to those of the central office systems was embarked upon. Dial tone, busy tone, and ring tone are provided during call process. Switching employs integrated circuit (IC) matrix switches on four buses. Thus, this system is expandable to 8 lines (4 pairs) if more hardware is added. This system is switching on the Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF) dialing signal. 1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The major problems this project intends to deal with are: Cut down cost of internal calls made within a company. Eliminate the need for a central telephone company to help you monitor your internal calls. Eliminate Stress of notification of telephone company each time you need a new extension and thereby reducing cost. Ensure security of your internal calls which otherwise can be tapped by company operating it. Eliminate the need for a manual switchboard and subsequently an operator to connect the calls. Reduce man-hours lost through staff walking about in an office in order to pass information to each other. 1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: The main aim of this project is to design and implement a 4 line private exchange box that is able to create connection between four different telephone lines internally without having to connect to an external or trunk line. The objectives include: Establishing connections between the telephone sets of any two users. (e.g. mapping a dialed number to a physical phone) Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them. (i.e. channeling voice signals between the users) Creating an easy means of communication in an office without getting to spend money for their internal calls. To switch between telephone users thereby creating connections. To make sure the connection remains in place as long as it last, by keeping its resources. To properly end the connection when a user hangs up. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The ability or concept of providing an easy and less expensive way of communication within a small office or organization without having to pay for your internal calls or having limits to the rate or length of calls within the office. Also it is not necessary to go from office to office when something is needed, information is to be passed; a call to a colleague saves stress of walking about. 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY The Private Exchange System in this project is limited to a four lines which means that internal calls can be made from only four nodes. As such, it is only suitable for very small organization. 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The review of existing and related works to source appropriate information on how to go about the implementation of the project will be carried out. Information shall be gathered from text books, magazines, journals, and World Wide Web to provide answers in relation to the study. Based on the review, the design and implementation of a four line private exchange box system shall be carried out. 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY There are several factors that could contribute to the group not delving deeper into this project which could have resulted in a more comprehensive work. Constraints are unavoidable in any system, be it a natural system or a computer system. Due to the extensiveness of this project topic, limitations were encountered some of which include: Time constraint. Financial constraints. Inadequate facilities to work with. 1.7 ORGANIZATION OF WORK In chapter one, the research topic is introduced, which is followed by the statement of problem after which the aims and objectives of the study are stated, significance of study, scope of study and research methodology are all identified. The second chapter gives us a view of the related works which have been done and how they are related to our work. The third chapter is about our design methodology and this emphasizes on how the whole private exchange system works and its components. The quality of the system is tested and documented in chapter four. Also in chapter four, an in-depth manual of the system functions and contents is given. A summary of all chapters, a conclusion is outlined in chapter five. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 HISTORY OF PRIVATE EXCHANGE BOX In the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make phone calls work in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information. Early telephone exchanges are a suitable example of circuit switching; the subscriber would ask the operator to connect to another subscriber, whether on the same exchange or via an inter-exchange link and another operator. In any case, the end result was a physical electrical connection between the two subscribers telephones for the duration of the call. The copper wire used for the connection could not be used to carry other calls at the same time, even if the subscribers were in fact not talking and the line was silent. The first telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Connecticut in 1878. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from tea pot lids and bustle wire and could handle two simultaneous conversations. Later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by telephone operators. Each operator sat in front of a vertical panel containing banks of  ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve (3-conductor) jacks, each of which was the local termination of a subscribers telephone line. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each pair connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, a signal lamp near the jack would light. The operator would plug one of the cords (the answering cord) into the subscribers jack and switch her headset into the circuit to ask, number please? Depending upon the answer, the operator might plug the other cord of the pair (the ringing cord) into the called partys local jack and start the ri nging cycle, or plug into a trunk circuit to start what might be a long distance call handled by subsequent operators in another bank of boards or in another building miles away. 2.1 PBX SYSTEM COMPONENTS PBX is a telephone exchange serving a single organization and having no means for connecting to a public telephone system it serves a user company which wants to have its own communication branch to save some money on internal calls. This is done by having the exchanging or switching of circuits done locally, inside the company. There are some important components which play a major role in the implementation of an effective PBX system. Some of the Component The PBXs internal switching network. Central processor unit (CPU) or computer inside the system, including memory. Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices that facilitate PBX operation. Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines. Outside Telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the PBX. Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches and batteries. Interconnecting wiring. Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings. 2.2 PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE (PBX) There are essentially three different types of PBXs that could be deployed within an organization infrastructure. It is necessary to be certain of type in use, so as to be able to identify the essential numbers. There are currently three different PBX classes: Centrex; Direct Inward Dialing (DID)/Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) and Megalink. 2.2.1 CENTREX Centrex is the easiest of the PBX types. This PBX, unlike other types is installed within the telephone companys Central Office (CO) and does not require dialing an extension code (normally 4 numeric characters) after having dialed the 7 to 10 digit number to connect a call to an individual. In a simplistic manner, it could be considered similar to the telephone used at home. It has an area code (NPA), an Exchange (NXX) and a Unique Number, (0000 to 9999) and does not require the dialling of another number after it in order to place a call. These numbers may be entered through a PAD. 2.2.2 Direct Inward Dialing(DID)/ Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) Unlike a Centrex, these types of PBXs is not installed within the telephone companys Central Office. Secondly, if a cut of the telephone wire occurs outside the building, individuals are still able to dial within it to talk to colleagues by simply dialing their extension number (normally a number between 0000 to 9999) lastly; this PBX is controlled via a computer interface at a control console. Since the PBX requires constant power to function, it may be necessary to hook it with generating plant, in the absence of power from electricity company. Direct Inward Dialing (DID) and Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) are simply features of an Automated PBX which require that you dial the companys general telephone number followed by the entry of the individuals extension number when prompted to do so. DIDs allow you direct dialing (seven digits) to locate an individual within an organizations PBX. It is a trunk phone number that must be entered into the PAD program and flagged as a PBX to ensure that the outgoing line(s) get priority. PBXs may be privately owned or telecommunication company owned. If PBX is programmable it is possible to assign specific trunk lines to specific numbers. These trunk line numbers may then be entered on PAD thus providing dial tone protection. 2.2.3 MEGALINKS The major difference between this and a Centrex PBX is that the exiting trunk lines from a building to the telephone company central office are comprised of fibre optic cables and not through twisted pair wiring. Another difference is that unlike a Centrex that is identified by its ten digit telephone number (NPA, NXX, and Unique), Megalinks are identified by a circuit ID number. This number may contain characters and may even resemble a telephone number, however, PAD does not allow for the entry of the circuit switch identifier. The reason is quite simple, fibre optic cabling circuits can handle far more traffic than twisted pair PBXs. 2.3 INTERFACE STANDARDS Interfaces for connecting extensions to a PBX include: POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) the common two-wire interface used in most homes. This is cheap and effective, and allows almost any standard phone to be used as an extension. Proprietary the manufacturer has defined a protocol. One can only connect the manufacturers sets to their PBX, but the benefit is more visible information displayed and/or specific function buttons. DECT a standard for connecting cordless phones. Internet Protocol For example, H.323 and SIP. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to each other include: Proprietary protocols if equipment from several manufacturers is on site, the use of a standard protocol is required. QSIG for connecting PBXs to each other, usually runs over T1 (T-carrier) or E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. DPNSS for connecting PBXs to trunk lines. Standardised by British Telecom, this usually runs over E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. Internet Protocol H.323, SIP and IAX protocols are IP based solutions which can handle voice and multimedia (e.g. video) calls. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to trunk lines include: Standard POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) lines the common two-wire interface used in most domestic homes. This is adequate only for smaller systems, and can suffer from not being able to detect incoming calls when trying to make an outbound call. ISDN the most common digital standard for fixed telephony devices. This can be supplied in either Basic (2 circuit capacity) or Primary (24 or 30 circuit capacity) versions. Most medium to large companies would use Primary ISDN circuits carried on T1 or E1 physical connections. RBS (Robbed bit signaling) delivers 24 digital circuits over a four-wire (T1) interface. Internet Protocol H.323, SIP, MGCP, and Inter-Asterisk eXchange protocols operate over IP and are supported by some network providers. Interfaces for collecting data from the PBX: Serial interface historically used to print every call record to a serial printer. Now an application connects via serial cable to this port. Network Port (Listen mode) where an external application connects to the TCP or UDP port. The PBX then starts streaming information down to the application. Network Port (Server mode) The PBX connects to another application or buffer. File The PBX generates a file containing the call records from the PBX. The call records from the PBX are called SMDR, CDR, or CIL.   (Micheal, 1999) 2.4 TELEPHONE Telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created.   Although most people take it completely for granted, the telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created. To talk to someone, just pick up the phone and dial a few digits; connection will be established with the person and a two-way conversation can take place. It is an instrument designed for simultaneous transmission and reception of the human voice. It works by converting the sound waves of the human voice to pulses of electrical current, transmitting the current, and then retranslating the current back to sound. The U.S. patent granted to Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 for developing a device to transmit speech sounds over electric wires is often called the most valuable ever issued. Within 20 years, the telephone acquired a form that has remained fundamentally unchanged for more than a century. The advent of the transistor (1947) led to lightweight, compact circuitry . Advances in electronics have allowed th e introduction of a number of smart features such as automatic redialing, caller identification, call waiting, and call forwarding. The figure 2.1 shows the major components that makes up a telephone set. 2.5 HOW TELEPHONE WORKS When a person speaks into a telephone, the sound waves created by his voice enter the mouthpiece. An electric current carries the sound to the telephone of the person he is talking to. A telephone has two main parts: (1) the transmitter and (2) the receiver.The Transmitter of a telephone serves as a sensitive electric ear. It lies behind the mouthpiece of the phone. Like the human ear, the transmitter has 14 eardrum. The eardrum of the telephone is a thin, round metal disk called a diaphragm. When a person talks into the telephone, the sound waves strike the diaphragm and make it vibrate. The diaphragm vibrates at various speeds, depending on the variations in air pressure caused by the varying tones of the speakers voice.   Behind the diaphragm lies a small cup filled with tiny grains of carbon. The diaphragm presses against these carbon grains. Low voltage electric current travels through the grains. This current comes from batteries at the telephone company. The pressure on the carbon grains varies as sound waves make the diaphragm vibrate. A loud sound causes the sound waves to push hard on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm presses the grains tightly together. This action makes it easier for the electric current to travel through, and a large amount of electricity flows through the grains. When the sound is soft, the sound waves push lightly on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm puts only a light pressure on the carbon grains. The grains are pressed together loosely. This makes it harder for the electric current to pass through them, and less current flows through the grains. Thus, the pattern of the sound waves determines the pressure on the diaphragm. This pressure, in turn, regulates the pressure on the carbon grains. The crowded or loose grains cause the electric current to become stronger or weaker. The current copies the pattern of the sound waves and travels over a telephone wire to the receiver of another telephone. The Receiver serves as an electric mouth. Like a human voice, it has vocal cords. The vocal cords of the receiver are a diaphragm. Two magnets located at the edge of the diaphragm cause it to vibrate. One of the magnets is a permanent magnet that constantly holds the diaphragm close to it. The other magnet is an electromagnet. It consists of a piece of iron with a coil of wire wound around it. When an electric current passes through the coil, the iron core becomes magnetized. The diaphragm is pulled toward the iron core and away from the permanent magnet. The pull of the electromagnet varies between strong and weak, depending on the variations in the current. Thus, the electromagnet controls the vibrations of the diaphragm in the receiver.The electric current passing through the electromagnet becomes stronger or weaker according to the loud or soft sounds. This action causes the diaphragm to vibrate according to the speakers speech pattern. As the diaphragm moves in and out, it pulls and pushes the air in front of it. The pressure on the air sets up sound waves that are the same as the ones sent into the transmitter. The sound waves strike the ear of the listener and he hears the words of the speaker. (www.howstuffworks.com) 2.6 THE RINGER Simply speaking this is a device that alerts you to an incoming call. It may be a bell, light, or warbling tone.  Ã‚   The ringing signal is in an AC wave form.   Although the common frequency used can be any frequency between 15 and 68 Hz.   Most of the world uses frequencies   between   20 and 40 Hz.  Ã‚   The voltage at the subscribers end depends upon loop length and number   of   ringers attached to the line; it could be between 40 and 150 Volts. The ringing cadence (the timing of ringing to pause), varies from company to company.   In the United States the cadence is normally 2 seconds of ringing to 4 seconds of pause. An unanswered phone in the United States will keep ringing until the caller hangs up.   But in some countries, the ringing will time out if the call is not answered. The   most   common   ringing   device is   the   gong   ringer; a solenoid   coil   with a clapper that strikes either a single or double bell. A gong ringer is the loudest signaling device that is solely phone-line powered. Modern telephones tend to use warbling ringers, which are usually ICs powered by the rectified ringing signal.   The audio transducer is a small   loudspeaker via a transformer. Ringers are isolated from the DC of the phone line by a capacitor. Gong ringers in the United States use a 0.47 uF capacitor.   Warbling ringers in the United States generally use a 1.0 uF capacitor.   Telephone companies in other   parts   of   the world   use   capacitors   between   0.2   and   2.0   uF.  Ã‚   The  Ã‚   paper capacitors of the past have been replaced almost exclusively with capacitors made of Mylar film.   Their voltage rating is always 50 Volts.   The capacitor and ringer coil, or Zeners in a warbling ringer, constitute a resonant circuit. When phone is hung up (on hook) the ringer is across the line; and it has merely silenced the transducer, not removed the circuit from the line. When the telephone company uses the ringer to test the line, it   sends   a   low-voltage, low frequency   signal   down   the   line (usually   2 Volts at 10 Hz) to test for continuity. The company compares result with the expected signals of the line.   This is how it can tell whether an added equipment is on the line. If your telephone has had its ringer disconnected, the telephone company cannot detect its presen ce on the line. Because there is only a certain amount of current available to   drive ringers, if ringers are added to phone lines indiscriminately, a point will be reached at which either all ringers will cease to ring, some will cease to ring, or some ringers will ring   weakly. A normal ringer is defined as   a   standard gong   ringer   as   supplied   in   a   phone   company   standard   desk telephone; Value given to this ringer   is   Ringer   Equivalence Number   (REN)   1. It can be as high as 3.2, which means that device consumes the equivalent   power   of   3.2 standard ringers, or 0.0, which means it consumes no current when subjected   to   a   ringing   signal.   If   there is a problem with ringing, it could be that the REN is greater than 5, disconnecting ringers until REN is at 5 or below will usually solve the problem. Other countries have various ways of expressing   REN,   and some   systems   will handle no more th an three of   their   standard ringers.   But whatever the system, if an extra equipment was added and the   phones   stop ringing, or the phone answering   machine   wont pick   up   calls,   the solution is disconnect   ringers   until   the problem   is resolved. Warbling ringers tend to draw less current than   gong   ringers, so changing from gong   ringers   to   warbling ringers may help spread the sound better. Frequency response is the second criterion by which a ringer is described. Because a ringer is supposed to respond to AC waveforms,   it will tend to respond to transients (such as switching transients) when the phone is hung up, or when the rotary dial is used on   an extension phone.   This is called bell tap in the United States; in other   countries,   its often called   bell   tinkle.  Ã‚   While European and   Asian phones tend to bell tap, or   tinkle,   United States ringers that bell tap are considered defective. The bell tap   is   designed out of gong ringers and fine   tuned   with   bias springs.  Ã‚   Warbling   ringers   for use in the   United   States   are designed   not   to respond to short transients;   this   is   usually accomplished   by   rectifying the AC and filtering   it   before   it powers the IC,   then not switching on the output stage unless the voltage lasts long enough to charge a second capacitor.(Roberts, 2006) 2.7 HOOK SWITCH This is a lever that is depressed when the handset is resting in its cradle. It is a two-wire to four-wire converter that provides conversion between the four-wire handset and the two-wire local loop. There are two stages, which are off   hook and on hook Off hook: The state of a telephone line that allows dialing and transmission but prohibits incoming calls from being answered. The phone is off-hook when the handset is removed from the base unit of a stationary phone or press Talk on a portable phone. The term stems from the days when the handset was lifted off an actual hook. When the handset was removed, a spring caused contacts to press together, closing the circuit from the telephone to the switchboard. On hook: The condition that exists when a telephone or other user instrument is not in use, i.e., when idle waiting for a call. Note: on-hook originally referred to the storage of an idle telephone reciever, i.e., separate earpiec, on a swithch hook. The weigth of the recieved depresses the sping leaded switch hook thereby disconnecting the idle instrument (except its bell) from the telephone line.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Roberts, 2006) 2.8 THE DIAL There are two types of dials in use around the world. The most common one is called pulse, loop disconnect, or rotary; the oldest form of dialing, its been in use since the 1920s. The other dialing   method,   is called Touch-tone, Dual Tone Multi-Frequency   (DTMF) Pulse dialing   is traditionally accomplished with   a   rotary dial,   which is a speed governed wheel with a cam that opens   and closes a switch in series with the phone and the line.   It works by   actually   disconnecting   or hanging   up   the   telephone   at specific intervals.   The United States standard is one disconnect per  Ã‚   digit,  Ã‚   so if a   1, is dailled, the telephone   is disconnected once. To dial a seven means that it will be   disconnected seven times; and dialling a zero means that it will hang up ten times. Some countries invert the system so 1 causes ten disconnects   and 0,   one disconnect.   Some add a digit so that dialing a 5 would cause six disconnects and 0, eleven disconnects.   There are even some systems in which dialing 0 results in one   disconnect,   and all   other digits are plus one, making a 5 cause six   disconnects and 9, ten disconnects. Although most exchanges are quite happy with rates of 6   to 15   Pulses Per Second (PPS), the phone company accepted   standard is   8   to   10 PPS.   Some modern digital exchanges, free   of   the mechanical   inertia problems of older systems, will accept a   PPS rate as high as 20. Besides   the PPS rate, the dialing pulses have a   make/break ratio,   usually   described as a percentage, but   sometimes   as   a straight   ratio.   The North American standard is 60/40   percent; most of Europe accepts a standard of 63/37 percent.   This is the pulse measured at the telephone, not at the exchange, where   its somewhat   different, having traveled through the phone line   with its   distributed   resistance, capacitance,   and   inductance.  Ã‚   In practice, the   make/break   ratio does not   seem   to   affect   the performance of the dial when attached to a normal loop.   However,each pulse is a switch connect and disconnect across   a complex   impedance, so the switching transient often reaches   300 Volts. Usually, a safe practice is not to have fingers   across   the   line   when dialing. Most pulse dialing phones produced today use a CMOS IC and a keyboard.   Instead of pushing finger round in circles, then removing finger and waiting for the dial to return   before dialing the next digit, the button can be punched as fast as desired.   The IC stores the number and pulses out the number at the correct rate with the correct make/break ratio and the switching is done with a high-voltage switching transistor.   Because the IC has already stored the dialed number in order to pulse it out at the   correct rate,   its a simple matter for telephone designers to   keep   the memory alive   and allow the telephone to   store,   recall,   and redial the Last Number Dialed (LND).   This feature enables easy redial by picking up the handset and pushing just one button. Touch tone is the most modern form of dialing. It is   fast   and less   prone to error than pulse dialing.   Compared to pulse, its major advantage is that its audio band signals can   travel   down phone   lines further than pulse, which can travel only as far   as the   local   exchange. Touch-tone can therefore   send   signals around   the   world via the telephone lines, and can   be   used   to control phone answering machines and computers.   Bell   Labs developed DTMF in order to have a dialing   system that   could travel across microwave links and work   rapidly   with computer   controlled exchanges.   Each transmitted digit consists of two separate audio tones that are mixed together. The four   vertical columns on the keypad are known as   the   high group and the four horizontal rows as the low group; the digit   8 is   composed   of 1336 Hz and 852 Hz.   The level of each   tone   is within   3   dB   of the other.   A complete touch-tone pad has 16 digits, as opposed to ten on a pulse dial.   Besides the numerals 0 to 9, a DTMF   dial has *, #, A, B, C, and D.   Although the letters are not normally found   on consumer telephones, the IC in the phone is capable   of generating them. The   * sign is usually called star or asterisk.  Ã‚   The # sign,   often referred to as the pound sign. is actually   called an   octothorpe. Although many phone users have never used   these digits      they are not, after all, ordinarily   used in   dialing phone   numbers. They   are used   for   control   purposes,   phone answering machines, bringing up remote bases, electronic banking, and repeater control.   The one use of the octothorpe that may be familiar occurs in dialing international calls from phones.   After dialing the complete number,   dialing   the octothorpe   lets the exchange know youve finished   dialing.  Ã‚   It can now begin routing your call; without the octothorpe, it would wait and time out before switching your call. Standard DTMF dials will produce a tone as long as a key   is depressed.  Ã‚   No matter   how long you press,   the   tone   will   be decoded as the appropriate digit.   The shortest duration in which a digit can be sent and decoded is about 100 milliseconds   (ms).   Its pretty   difficult   to dial by hand at   such   a   speed,   but automatic dialers can do it.   A twelve-digit long distance number can be   dialed by an automatic dialer in a little   more   than   a second about as long as it takes a pulse dial to send a   single 0 digit.(Roberts,2006) 2.9 MODULAR CONNECTORS Modular connector is the name given to a family of electrical connectors that were originally used in telephone wiring. Even though they are still used for that purpose they are used for a variety of other things as well. A modular connectors advantage over many other kinds include; small size and ease of plugging and unplugging. Many uses that originally used a bulkier connector have migrated to modular connectors. Probably the most well known applications of modular connectors is for telephone jacks and for ethernet jacks, which are nearly always modular connectors. Figure 2.2 shows types of connectors commonly used. Modular connectors were first used in the registered jack system, so registered Jack specifications describe them precisely. These are the specifications to which all practical modular connectors are built. Modular connectors come in four sizes: 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-position. A position is a place that can hold a conductor (pin). The positions need not all be used; a connector can have any even number of conductors. Unused positions are usually the outermost positions. The connectors are designed so that a plug can fit into any jack that has at least the number of positions as the plug. Where the jack has more positions than the plug, the outermost positions are unused. However, plugs from different manufacturers may not have this compatibility, and some manufacturers of eight position j

Oprah Winfrey :: essays research papers

On January 29. 1954 Oprah Gail Winfrey was born to unwed teenage parents in Kosciusko, Mississippi. For the first six years of her life her grandmother raised her on a Mississippi farm. While in her grandmother’s care she was taught to read at a very early age. This grew into a love of reading that she still has today. At the age of six her mother, Vernita Lee, decided that she could care for her daughter and Oprah was sent to live with her mother in Milwaukee. From the age of six to thirteen, Oprah stayed with her mother. During this time a cousin raped her when she was nine years old and later she was molested by a male friend of her mother’s and by an uncle. She never told anyone about the abuse that she was suffering. Instead, she held her angry and pain inside and she rebelled. She repeatedly ran away and got into trouble. She was sent to live with her father Vernon Winfrey in Nashville when she was thirteen. Her father helped her with discipline. He encouraged Oprah to do her best. Oprah’s father helped her turn her life around. Oprah has spoken of his requirement that she read a book each week and completes a book report on the book. At the age of nineteen Oprah landed her first job as a reporter for a radio station in Nashville. Later she entered Tennessee State University to study radio and television broadcasting. In 1976 Oprah Winfrey moved to Baltimore where she hosted a TV show called People Are Talking. The show was a hit and Winfrey stayed for eight years. In 1986 Oprah started the Oprah Winfrey Show. Oprah has been honored with the most prestigious awards in broadcasting including the George Foster Peabody individual Achievement award in 1996 and the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences lifetime Achievement award in 1998. In June 1998,

Network Design Proposal

Unlimited Security International is a diversified company composed of two segments (Security Solutions, and Fire Protection) that provides vital products and services to customers around the world. Security Solutions: Sell, designs, installs and maintains integrated systems to detect intrusion, control access and react to movement, fire, smoke, flooding, environmental conditions, industrial processes and other hazards. Fire Protection: Sell, designs, installs and maintains fire detection, fire sprinkler, fire suppression, emergency communications, and nurse call systems in both new and existing facilities.Our global reach allows us to anticipate changes across geographies and industries, and deploy the right solutions rapidly. In the most challenging and demanding environments, we help our customers achieve their safety, security and business goals. Unlimited Security International is a market leader in the $100 billion+ global fire protection and security solutions industries. Our 2 25,000 employees take great pride in knowing that they make a difference in the world: their work helps protect and safeguard people and property. Our products and solutions help protect:80% of the world’s top retailers More than 1,000,000 fire fighters around the world 300 international airports 100+ major stadiums around the world 200+ hospitals around the world Nearly 9 million commercial, government and residential customers Communications Methods used by Unlimited Security International1. Desktop computers – Used by management, sales, service, and administrative workers to conduct daily transactions, email, and training. 2. Plain old telephone service- Used to conduct routine conversations with customers, and field technicians. 3. VoIP – Used to conduct secure conversations within the organization. 4. Video teleconference, conference calls, and Web-Cast – Used for training, passing word, analyzing plans while saving money from travel expenses. 5. Lap top computers and VPN’s – Used by management, and mobile employees. 6. PDA’s – Used by remote employees to view, and update  plans and documents. 7. Smart phones – Used by mobile employees 8. Wireless network 9. Global Positioning System – Track vehicle location and usageProtocols802.1q (VLAN) 802.3an 802.11n 802.16 (WiMAX) Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) Domain Name Service (DNS) Ipv4 Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP) Hypertext Transport Protocol Secure (HTTP) Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) Session Description Protocol (SDP) Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2)Management and MonitoringThe goal of our network fault management and monitoring is to detect, log, notify users of, and (to the extent possible) automatically fix network problems to keep the network running effective ly. Fault Management—Detect, isolate, notify, and correct faults encountered in the network. Configuration Management—Configuration aspects of network devices such as configuration file management, inventory management, and software management.Performance Management—Monitor and measure various aspects of performance so that overall performance can be maintained at an acceptable level. Security Management—Provide access to network devices and corporate  resources to authorized individuals. Accounting Management—Usage information of network resources. The management and monitoring platform will include:Network discovery Topology mapping of network elements Event handler Performance data collector and grapher Management data browserTrivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and system log (syslog) servers are crucial components of this troubleshooting infrastructure. The TFTP server is used primarily for storing configuration files and software images fo r network devices. The routers and switches are capable of sending system log messages to a syslog server. The messages facilitate the troubleshooting function when problems are encountered.Security ManagementThe goal of our security management is to control access to network resources according to local guidelines so that the network cannot be sabotaged (intentionally or unintentionally). The security management subsystem can monitor users logging on to a network resource, refusing access to those who enter inappropriate access codes. Use the following methods of controlling access on the routers and switches: Access Control Lists (ACL)User IDs and passwords local to the device Terminal Access Controller Access Control System (TACACS)TACACS is an Internet Engineering Task Force (RFC 1492) standard security protocol that runs between client devices on a network and against a TACACS server. TACACS is an authentication mechanism that is used to authenticate the identity of a device se eking remote access to a privileged database. Variations of TACACS include TACACS+, the AAA architecture that separates authentication, authorization, and accounting functions. AuthenticationAuthentication is the way a user is identified prior to being allowed access to the router or switch. There is a fundamental relationship between authentication and authorization. The more authorization privileges a user receives, the stronger the authentication will be.AuthorizationAuthorization provides remote access control, including one-time authorization and authorization for each service that is requested by the user.Accounting Accounting allows for the collecting and sending of security information used for billing, auditing, and reporting, such as user identities, start and stop times, and executed commands. Network managers can track the services that users are accessing as well as the amount of network resources they are consuming.Unified Communications1. Unified Messaging (Voice, Ema il & Fax) 2. Mobility 3. Audio & Video Conferencing 4. Core UC (VoIP, IM, Group chat, webconferencing) 5. PBX Integration and/or Replacement 6. Contact Center 7. Communication enabled Business Process (CEBP)Protocols1. Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) 2. Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) 3. Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP) 4. Real-Time Control Protocol (RTCP)